Random Route Sampling (see Sampling Methods)

Randomized Trials
Trials in which the allocation of subjects to different groups is done such that any one subject has the same chances as another of being included in any of the experimental categories.

Rapporteur (see Centralized Procedure)

Rating Scale (in Health Outcomes)
A visual analogue scale with clearly defined anchors, e.g. 0 = death; 100 = perfect health.

Rating Scale (in Market Research)
A scale used in market research used to assess response. Examples follow:

• Bipolar vs Monopolar
• Bipolar Scale - This has two ends, e.g. 'sweet - sour'
• Monopolar Scale - This measures one quality only and determines the perceived degree of an attribute, e.g. from 'extremely sweet' to 'not sweet at all'

Rating Scale (in Market Research)

• Nominal vs Ordinal vs Interval vs Ratio
   
• Nominal Scale - The levels on the scale are no more than labels
• Ordinal Scale - A scale with a ranking (but the intervals are meaningless and lack sensitivity)
• Interval Scale - A scale in which the differences between values have meaning, which allows the calculation of a mean and standard deviation
• Ratio Scale - A scale with a series of graduations starting from zero. The absolute values on this scale can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided.
  
  The differences between these scales can be illustrated by considering a 100m race
  Nominal: Competitor is in lane number 3 (it doesn't matter which lane number is assigned)
  Ordinal: Competitor finishes in first place
  Interval: Our competitor was 0.1 seconds ahead of the next runner
  Ratio: The first three runners had finishing times of 9.6, 10.6, and 11.6 seconds
• Attitude Measurement - This often relies on creating attitude statements for respondents to react to. These statements must be meaningful and understandable / recognizable, interesting / stimulating, often not too rational but designed to provoke strong reactions. Some widely used attitude measurement techniques are described below:
• Likert Summated Ratings Scale - A scale measuring attitude which has a midpoint with equal range on either side. The respondent is encouraged to move from a state of judgment to a state of involvement. Example: Strongly agree > agree > neither agree nor disagree > disagree > strongly disagree

RCT
Randomized Controlled Trial
Scientifically, the most rigorous design, whereby adequate numbers of well-matched subjects are randomly assigned to different treatment groups and carefully monitored.

Recruitment Screener
The process by which respondents are chosen for interview based on pre-determined selection criteria in the course of non-probability market research sampling. (see also Sampling Methods)

Regression
A range of statistical projection tools used to identify the trend of a data set over time.

Regression Analysis
A statistical technique used to determine the degree to which a set of variables (referred to as independent) are related to other variables (referred to as dependent) often used as the basis for predictions.

Reimbursement
Healthcare system agreement to cover the costs of pharmaceuticals. Mechanisms and levels of reimbursement vary by country and product, from full, partial or no coverage.

Relationship Marketing
Deliberate building of strong relations with existing and past customers with the aim of gaining further business from them.

Relative Price
The price of a product compared to the weighted average price of the market. This is weighted by usage to take account of factors such as generics which tend to have a high share but a low price.

Reliability (see Health Status Instrument)

Reproducibility
Ability of an instrument to produce identical measurements under different conditions or at different times provided the attribute being measured remains unchanged. Usually assessed by determining test-retest correlation coefficients.

Research Interviews (in Market Research)

• Depth Interview - Interview format used in qualitative research. Following a discussion guide, questions are used to steer the discussion, but in-depth probing is encouraged to allow flexibility and aid in-depth understanding. Interviews are audio-taped and then transcribed or content analyzed.
• Semi-Structured Interview - Interview format used in quantitative research using a mixture of structured (pre-coded) questions as well as open questions in which the interviewer writes in verbatim responses. Rarely audio-taped, interviews are coded and data processed.
• Structured Interview - Interview format used in quantitative research using a stringent interview structure involving a written questionnaire consisting primarily of closed precoded questions. The interview is not audio-taped. Computer interviewing can be used and interviews are coded and data processed.
• Focus Groups - Also known as a discussion group. A group of target individuals brought together to a central location for a discussion lasting typically for approximately 2 hours. The discussion is led by a moderator using a discussion guide. Through interaction of participants, this method is useful for exploring a range of issues and generating creative solutions and ideas.
• Extended Groups - Groups lasting several hours (more than the usual 1 or 2), often employing projective techniques.
• Pilot Interview - A pilot interview is an early interview to test the administration of a questionnaire or discussion guide to unveil any problems likely to be encountered, or to help in the design of the research. Often called a pre-test. A pilot survey is a small-scale exercise performed prior to the main stage research.
• Face to Face Interview - a personal interview as opposed to telephone interview.
• Expert Interview - a face-to-face interview with a high-level respondent (e.g. key opinion leader).

Research Questions (in Market Research)

• Discussion Guide vs Questionnaire
• Discussion Guide - Used in qualitative research, this is a relatively unstructured set of notes and topics which the interviewer must cover, but using his / her own words to ask questions.
• Questionnaire - Used in quantitative research, this is a structure instrument including some / all of the following: administrative details, instructions, written or verbally administered questions, and may include space for answers. The questionnaire must translate information required into a set of questions that the respondent is able and willing to answer. It should motivate and encourage the respondent (and interviewer!), and minimize response error. Three types of questionnaire are described below.
• Unstructured vs Semi Structured vs Structured
• Unstructured Questionnaire - See Discussion Guide above
• Semi Structured Questionnaire - An instrument which includes a mix of structured (pre coded) questions as well as open questions in which the interviewer writes in verbatim responses. Rarely audio-taped, interviews are coded and data processed.
• Structured Questionnaire - A highly structured instrument used to administer a stringent series of (primarily) closed pre coded questions. The interview is not audio-taped. Computer interviewing can be used and interviews are coded and data processed.

• Open vs Closed
• Open Ended Question - A question to which the respondent is free to give a full verbatim answer
• Closed Question - A question with multiple choice answers
• Dichotomous Question - A closed question with only two possible answers (apart from 'don't know' or 'no preference').
• Direct vs Indirect
• Indirect Question - A question asked in a roundabout way.
• Direct Question - A question asked straightforwardly to a respondent. Most questions in a structured questionnaire are direct.
• Probe vs Prompt
• Probe Question - A sub-question used to compliment a previous question, which looks for more detail (e.g. "Why?" or "What else?").
• Prompt Question - A question provokes further thought - prompts are leading.
• Filters vs Routing
• Filter Question - A question whose answer determines which questions should be asked next depending on its answer.
• Routing Question - An instruction giving information on which questions should be asked next depending on the answer to the filter question.
• Ranking Exercise - A simple task where the respondent is asked to rank items in ascending or descending order
• Classification Questions - A group of questions which address the characteristics of the respondent (e.g. for a physician: specialty type, job grade, date of qualification, type of practice, type of hospital, size of hospital, country and region).
• Interviewer Instructions - Directions on the questionnaire to help and guide the interviewer during the interviewer.

Research Studies (in Market Research)
There are many differing types of market Research Studies, which can be best understood by comparing and contrasting...

• Qualitative vs Quantitative
• Qualitative Research - More to do with understanding (the reasons why). Marketing research to explore opinion and value judgment of individuals from which collective general conclusions may be drawn. Such research usually involves group discussions or depth interviews.
• Quantitative Research - More to do with measurement (how many). Marketing research based on a sufficiently large sample and question design to allow statistical tests to be applied to the results. Often Conclusive.
• Primary vs Secondary
• Primary Research - Original research which involves collecting information for a specific purpose and may involve commissioning a study tailored to filling the information gap.
• Secondary Research (often termed Desk Research) - Involves collecting information from sources which already exist, e.g. internal company records, sales audits, government or other official statistics.
• Ad Hoc vs Syndicated
• Ad Hoc Research - Research commissioned for one customer only.
• Syndicated Research - Research shared by (sold to) more than one customer. Each client will buy into part or all of the research design and findings.
• Field vs Desk
• Field Research - The collection of primary data from external sources using survey, observation or experiment techniques.
• Desk Research - The gathering and analysis of data from secondary sources such as government and company records, published statistics.

• Observational vs Experimental
• Observational Research - This involves monitoring respondents actions rather than questioning them.
• Experimental Research - One or more variables are changed while observing effects (if any) to explore causality. In this research there is a test group and a control group.
• Pure vs Applied
• Pure Research - Aimed at expanding the frontiers of knowledge.
• Applied Research - Aimed at solving specific practical problems to reduce uncertainty in a decision making process.
• Causal vs Descriptive
• Causal Research - Conducted to provide data on the relationships (or lack of) between variables.
• Descriptive Research - Provides evidence on the composition and characteristics of the subject under study.
• Exploratory vs Conclusive
• Exploratory Research - Preliminary research undertaken when little is known about the subject area. Often relatively quick, inexpensive or small scale methods are used to provide direction for future study if needed.
• Conclusive Research - Research designed to provide results and  recommendations to help decision makers implement a specific course of action.
• Continuous Research - A study conducted and repeated on an ongoing basis
• Longitudinal Research (or Prospective Research) - A study conducted over a period of time for the purpose of describing or comparing populations for defined clinical or non-clinical parameters at baseline and/or at end of study. Experimental studies such as clinical trials are typical examples of prospective/longitudinal studies.
• Survey Research - The collection of information by means of sampling and interviews with the selected individuals

• Omnibus Research - A survey which covers a number of topics, usually for different clients on a time-share basis.
• Diary Study - A research instrument which allows respondents to record answers over a period of time.
• Pre Test vs Post Test
• Pre-test - A test of some stimulus material (product, packaging, advertisement) before it is exposed to the public at large
• Post-test - Researching into something after it has been seen by the general public.

Respondent
An individual who answers questions in market research study.

Responsiveness (see Health Status Instrument)

Retainer
Fee paid to an individual or company on the understanding that it will provide a service as and when required.

RFP
Request for Proposal (see Brief)

ROA
Return on Assets.

ROE
Return on Equity.

ROI
Return on Investment.

RONA
Return on Net Assets.

ROS
Return on Sales.

Routing Question (see Research Questions)

Run On
Additional quantities of printed material over and above the original print order.